1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates to novel human gene sequences and proteins encoded by the gene sequences. More specifically, the invention concerns a novel gene, termed “ART” for agouti related transcript, that is expressed in selected tissues, and increases food uptake.
2. Description of Related Art
1. Agouti Gene
The agouti gene is present in most mammals, although its function in mammals other than rodents is unclear. The agouti gene product regulates the relative production of black or yellow pigment in the hair of many animals, including mice, squirrels, and wolves (A. G Searle, Comparative Genetics of Coat Color in Mammals, Academic Press, New York, N.Y. [1968]).
The mouse agouti gene has been cloned and sequenced (Bultman et al., Cell, 71:1195–1204 [1992]), and it encodes a 131 amino acid protein that is secreted. The agouti protein appears to act as an antagonist to the melanocortin-1 receptor (“MC1r”) which is expressed on melanocytes (see Takeuchi, J. Invest. Dermatol., 92:239S-242S [1989]; Jackson, Nature, 362:587–588 [1993]). MC1r, when occupied by melanocyte stimulating hormone (a-MSH), causes the melanocyte to synthesize black pigment (see Jackson, supra). and therefore, it appears that agouti blocks the action of a-MSH, thereby resulting in hairs with yellow pigment (Lu et al., Nature, 371:799–802 [1994]).
Similarly, Willard et al. (Biochemistry, 34:12341–12346 [1995]) have shown that partially purified mouse agouti protein acts as a potent antagonist of a-MSH at the MC1 receptor in B16F10 mouse melanoma cell cultures. Proteolytic cleavage of agouti protein at amino acid 83 generates a C-terminal fragment that is comparable in activity to full length agouti protein, suggesting that the active domain of agouti protein lies within its C-terminus (Willard et al., supra). This C-terminal fragment has 10 cysteines (the full length molecule has 11 cysteines).
In humans, the agouti gene is expressed in skin, heart, testes, ovary, and adipose tissue. This diverse tissue expression suggests that agouti may be involved in physiological processes other than pigmentation production (Wilson et al., Human Mol. Gen., 4:233–230 [1995]; Kwon et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 91:9760–9764 [1994]).
Several dominant phenotypes that result from agouti over-expression in transgenic mice have been identified. These include, for example, obesity, hyperinsulinemia, diabetes, and increased tumor susceptibility (see Manne et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 92:4721–4724 [1995]). The degree and time of onset of obesity and hyperinsulinemia appear to be related to the level of agouti gene expression (Manne et al., supra). Further, these phenotypes do not seem to be related to the excess production of yellow pigment, since mice which have an inactive MC1 receptor show the same phenotype.
Mutant mice that over-express the agouti gene product have increased levels of intracellular calcium in the skeletal muscle (Zemel et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA, 92:4728–4732 [1995]). Although the mechanism by which agouti produces this effect is not known, it does not appear to result either from release of intracellular stores of calcium or from a decreased efflux rate of calcium. Since skeletal muscle is important in the uptake of insulin, and this process is regulated at least in part by calcium levels, this increased intracellular calcium may explain in part the hyperinsulinemia observed in agouti mutant mice.
Interestingly, mouse agouti shares some amino acid sequence homology with certain spider and snail toxins that target specific neurotransmitter receptors or ion channels (Manne et al., supra; Ichida et al., Neurochem. Res., 18:1137–1144 [1993]; Figueiredo et al., Toxicon, 33:83–93 [1995]). This homology is primarily confined to the C-terminus of the agouti protein, where the toxins and agouti share 8 cysteine residues. In the toxins, these cysteine residues form 4 disulfide bonds that are critical for toxin activity. Structural activity relationships using 3-dimensional NMR predicts that the disulfide bonds are required to form the tertiary structure needed to block calcium channels (Kim et al., J. Mol. Biol., 250:659–671 [1995]).
In view of the amino acid sequence homologies of agouti with the spider and snail toxins, and the results obtained from mutant mice that over-express agouti, it has been suggested that agouti may be a member of a new class of molecules that regulate the activity of melanocortin receptors or certain types of calcium channel proteins (Manne et al., supra).
2. Melanocortin Receptors
In humans, there are currently five known melanocortin receptors and they are known as MC1r–MC5r. Two of these, MC1r and MC2r, show relative specificity for the ligands a-MSH and ACTH, respectively. MC1r and MC2r are expressed in melanocytes and the adrenal gland, respectively (Mountjoy et al., Science, 257:1248–1251 [1992]). MC3r is expressed in specific brain regions, while MC4r is expressed more widely throughout the brain, and MC5r is expressed in numerous peripheral tissues (Roselli-Reyfuss et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 90:8856–8860 [1993]; Mountjoy et al., Science, supra; Labbe et al., Biochemistry, 33:4543–4549 [1994]). The ligands and biological functions of MC3r, MC4r, and MC5r are presently unknown.
A role for melanocortin receptors in the central control of obesity has recently been suggested by the observation that injection of melanin concentrating hormone (MCH) into the brain of rats stimulates a feeding response (Qu et al., Nature, 380:243–247 [1996]). Although MCH does not have amino acid sequence homology with agouti, antibodies against MCH also recognize epitopes on agouti, and MCH also displays antagonistic activity at the MC1 receptor.
In view of the variety of physiological disorders and diseases (obesity, insulinemia, diabetes) that agouti and MCH have been implicated in, and in view of the fact that agouti and MCH antagonize MC receptors, there is a need in the art to identify and analyze related genes and proteins that may be involved in these same disorders.
Accordingly, it is an object to provide a compound that can modulate, either directly or indirectly, melanocortin receptor signaling, intra-cellular calcium levels, and/or body fat composition (such as adipose tissue level and/or distribution, circulating glucose levels, and/or insulin levels).
It is a further object to provide a compound that can increase food uptake.
These and other objectives will readily be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art.